Cognitive Psychology Free Essays

————————————————- Cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology  is a subdiscipline of  psychology  exploring internal  mental processes. It is the study of how people  perceive, remember, think, speak, and solve problems. Cognitive psychology differs from previous psychological approaches in two key ways. We will write a custom essay sample on Cognitive Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now * It accepts the use of the  scientific method, and generally rejects  introspection[2]  as a valid method of investigation – in contrast with such approaches asFreudian psychology. It explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as  belief,  desire,  idea,  knowledge  and  motivation). In its early years,  critics  held that the empiricism of cognitive psychology was incompatible with its acceptance of internal mental states. However, the sibling field of  cognitive neuroscience  has provided evidence of physiological brain states that directly correlate with mental states – thus providing support for the central assumption of cognitive psychology. [3] The school of thought arising from this approach is known as  cognitivism. Cognitive psychology has also influenced the area of  Cognitive Behavioral Therapy(CBT) where the combination of cognitive and  behavioral psychology  are used to treat a patient. ————————————————- History Ulric Neisser  coined the term â€Å"cognitive psychology† in his book  Cognitive Psychology,  published in 1967[4][5]  wherein Neisser provides a definition of cognitive psychology characterizing people as dynamic information-processing systems whose mental operations might be described in computational terms. Also emphasizing that it is a â€Å"point of view† that postulates the mind as having a certain conceptual structure. Neisser’s point of view endows the discipline with a scope beyond high-level concepts such as â€Å"reasoning† that other works often espouse as defining psychology. Neisser’s definition of â€Å"cognition† illustrates this well: The term â€Å"cognition† refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and  hallucinations†¦ Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every[6]  psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon. But although cognitive psychology is concerned with all human activity rather than some fraction of it, the concern is from a particular point of view. Other viewpoints are equally legitimate and necessary. Dynamic psychology, which begins with motives rather than with sensory input, is a case in point. Instead of asking how a man’s actions and experiences result from what he saw, remembered, or believed, the dynamic psychologist asks how they follow from the subject’s goals, needs, or instincts. Cognitive psychology is one of the more recent additions to psychological research, having only developed as a separate area within the discipline since the late 1950s and early 1960s following the â€Å"cognitive revolution† initiated by  Noam Chomsky’s 1959 critique[7]  of behaviorism and empiricism more generally. The origins of cognitive thinking such as  computational theory of mind  can be traced back as early as  Descartes  in the 17th century, and proceeding up to  Alan Turing  in the 1940s and ’50s. The cognitive approach was brought to prominence by  Donald Broadbent’s book  Perception and Communication  in 1958. Since that time, the dominant  paradigm  in the area has been the  information processing  model of cognition that Broadbent put forward. This is a way of thinking and reasoning about mental processes, envisioning them as software running on the computer that is the brain. Theories refer to forms of input, representation, computation or processing, and outputs. Applied to language as the primary mental knowledge representation system, cognitive psychology has exploited tree and network mental models. Its singular contribution to  AI  and psychology in general is the notion of a  semantic network. One of the first cognitive psychologists,  George Miller  is well known for dedicating his career to the development of  WordNet, a semantic network for the  English language. Development began in 1985 and is now the foundation for many machine ontologies. This way of conceiving mental processes has pervaded psychology more generally over the past few decades, and it is not uncommon to find cognitive theories within  social psychology,personality psychology,  abnormal psychology, and  developmental psychology. In fact, the  neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development  have fully integrated the developmental conception of changes in thought with age with  cognitive models  of information processing. [8]  The application of cognitive theories to  comparative psychology  has driven many recent studies in  animal cognition. The information processing approach to cognitive functioning is currently being questioned by new approaches in psychology, such as  dynamical systems, and the  embodiment  perspective. Because of the use of computational metaphors and terminology, cognitive psychology was able to benefit greatly from the flourishing of research in  artificial intelligence  and other related areas in the 1960s and 1970s. In fact, it developed as one of the significant aspects of the inter-disciplinary subject of  cognitive science, which attempts to integrate a range of approaches in research on the mind and mental processes How to cite Cognitive Psychology, Essay examples Cognitive Psychology Free Essays Cognitive Psychology Brian Shrum Psy/360 April 11, 2013 Dr. Turner Cognitive Psychology Hermann Ebbinghaus said, â€Å"Psychology has a long past, yet its real history is short† (Goodwin, 2008, p. 28). We will write a custom essay sample on Cognitive Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now He was referring to the belief that while the study of human thought, emotion, and behavior is firmly entrenched in philosophy, psychology as its own discipline has only been around a short time. During this short time, different branches of psychology have come out, one of them is cognitive psychology, which is only roughly 50 years old. Cognitive psychology expands upon other fields of psychology to further reveal why human beings act in the way they do. This paper will define cognitive psychology, explore key milestones in its development, and discuss the importance of observation as it relates to cognitive psychology. While human behavior has been observed since the beginnings of psychology, the different fields focused only on observable behaviors. In contrast to that, cognitive psychology is a perspective that looks at the mental processes involved with human intelligence and behavior. These processes include thinking, speaking, perceiving, memory, and problem-solving (Willingham, 2007). This field of psychology researches the unobservable nature of these processes, and uses abstract constructs to better understand these processes (Willingham, 2007). Cognitive psychology has evolved from other fields of psychology, one of which is behaviorism. Behaviorism was a very popular field of study during the early part of the 20th century. Many well-known psychologists like Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner made their mark during this behaviorist revolution. The behaviorist movement was firmly rooted in the scientific method and relied heavily on the observable actions. While behaviorism was a useful tool in explaining behaviors based on instinct and drives, it had several large hold-ups in being useful for humans. First, most of the experiments were done using non-human animals such as Pavlov’s dogs, which had no real usefulness in explaining the aspects of human intelligence. The second, and most destructive shortcoming for behaviorism, was that it did not observe, nor could it explain, human language, or intrinsic drives (Willingham, 2007). From these short comings, it became evident that parts of the human psyche had to be studied, which is where cognitive psychology began to form. However, this shortcoming has not been the only development to help cognitive psychology become what it is. The metaphor comparing the human mind to a computer was a big leap for cognitive psychology. It allowed new abstract ideas to formulate on how the human brain works like an information processing center (Willingham, 2007). The basic break down of this is sensory input gives way to processing, and from processing a behavior is chosen and performed. This behavior could be internal or external dependant on what the input necessitates. For instance the computer currently being used to write this paper is receiving input from the keyboard. This information is translated as a bunch of zeroes and ones, which are then output to the monitor in the form of the letters being typed on the keyboard. Combine this metaphorical approach with the onset of technology, specifically neuroscience, and cognitive psychology continues to evolve. Neuroscience has tremendously helped cognitive psychology evolve. With the development of brain studying equipment such EEGs, CT scans, and MRIs cognitive psychologists, and scientists, are better able to understand how the brain is used in receiving input. A patient can be hooked up to one of these machines and be asked to perform a task, either physical or mental, and the brain patterns can be observed. While the direct process of the interaction between brain cells cannot be directly observed, the patterns can be. These observations can be used to determine if the inferences made by the observing cognitive specialist are accurate (Willingham, 2007). Observing how the brain reacts during these experiments can show links between the structure of the brain and the associated functions performed (Willingham, 2007). Even with technology playing a key role in cognitive psychology, behavioral observation does still play a key in cognitive psychology. Behavioral observation is still vital in cognitive psychology. This is because it has shown that two different people may develop different ways to solve similar problems. Through these observations it has been suggested that how people solve problems helps to develop new cognitive skills. Also, without observation, the only tests that can be run are thinking tests, which entails a large amount of logic being applied to the results (Willingham, 2007). Observing how different people handle different situations allows for generalization to not become a problem. The continued technology movement has fueled the cognitive psychology movement. Combing experiments with a machine that can view the brain functions while the behavior is also being observed has produced many new theories. This cognitive movement has been founded on the failures of the past, and is growing with the technology of the future. References Goodwin, J. C. (2008). A history of modern psychology (3rd ed. ). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Sons. Willingham, D. T. (2007). CognitionL The thinking animal (3rd ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Allyn Bacon. How to cite Cognitive Psychology, Papers Cognitive Psychology Free Essays Cognitive psychology is psychological branch that study mental process including how people think, see, memorize and learn. As part of field of cognitive science that is larger, this psychological branch related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistic. Main focus cognitive psychology is about how people acquire, process and stores information. We will write a custom essay sample on Cognitive Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now There is many practical application for cognitive research, such as memory increase, better decide and curriculum education structuring to increase learning. Meanwhile, there is cognitive learning style that is different per person. Every from us have learning style and our own thinking. We also have learning methods and thinking and information processing that we sharing with other people. Joint these cognitive styles distinguish us from persons that raise linguistic environment and different cultures. Although accept that student will be interacting with and handle, learning experience curriculum in their own way on they themselves, our curriculum development often based on comprehension being shared with learning process elements. My studying process and strategies Basically, I will concentrate during classes and jot down some notes. Besides, I will list out anything that I could not understand during lecture and search more about it in the Internet. Sometime, it would be difficult for me to digest everything during classes, and as a distance learner, it is very important for me to understand the subject during classes. I will normally seek for lecturer to get more information and example on subject that I don’t understand much. Besides that, I am learning from experiences and cases study too. Normally, cases study is very useful for elaboration on certain theory. During exam, I will read the notes all over again for almost one week. Summaries the notes are the hardest things to do as I need to decide what are the most important things in each chapter. However, in process of summarizing the notes, I actually can learn and understand more on the subject. First domain: Perception Those studying perception seek to understand how we construct subjective interpretations of proximal information from the environment. Perceptual systems are composed of separate senses and processing modules and sub-modules that represent different aspects of the stimulus information. Current research also focuses on how these separate representations and modules interact and are integrated into coherent percepts. Cognitive psychologists have studied these properties empirically with psychophysical methods and brain imaging. Computational models, based on physiological principles, have been developed for many perceptual systems. Second domain: Attention Attention is a concept studied in cognitive psychology that refers to how we active process certain information that attended in our environment. In cognitive learning, individual learn by listening, watch, touch, read, or experience and then process and remember information. Cognitive learning may be seemed to have been passive learning, because has no movement motor. Nevertheless, student is fairly active, with cognitive way, in processing and remembers information. Cognitive learning enable us to create and send culture that is complex which includes symbol, value, belief and norm. Because cognitive activity, which involved in many aspects human behavior, it may seem that cognitive learning only occurred in human. Attention resolve information burden problem in cognitive processing system by choosing pieces of information for further processing, or by manage source used for simultaneously a few information source. Empirical investigation attention focused to how and why attention improve performance, or how lack of attention prevent performance. Theoretical analysis attention has taken a few main approaches to identify mechanism attention, signal detection approach and choice equation approach. Brain imaging studies have documented effects of attention on activation in early visual cortices, and have investigated the networks for attention control. The amount of information that can be processed is limited. For example, music distracts me, while I’m trying to study, my attention will be divided over both the book and the music. However, when I study without having the music on, I would have more attention on my study. Cognitive processes determine which of the available information will be used and which will be ignored. Third domain: Learning Learning improves the response of the organism to the environment. Cognitive psychologists study which new information is acquired and the conditions under which it is acquired. The study of learning begins with an analysis of learning phenomena in animals and extends to learning of cognitive or conceptual information by humans. Cognitive study implied learning stress influence that is mostly automatic first experience on performance, and nature knowledge procedural. Study on learning process conceptual stress nature information processing enters, role explanation, and nature representation encoded. They use approach calculation was investigated nature concept that can more have been learnt easily, and rule and algorithm for learning system. Not all cases can easily capture learning by classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Studies are very inefficient if we have to rely heavily on training for all our studies. Human beings can learn efficiently by observation, take command, and imitate the behavior of others. Cognitive learning is a powerful mechanism that provides a way of knowledge, and goes a long way behind the other simple imitation. Reconciliation cannot explain what you learned from reading our website. This study will reveal the importance of cognitive learning. Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skills by cognitive or mental process; procedures we have for manipulating information ‘in our heads’. Cognitive processes including the creation of a mental representation of physical objects and events, and other forms of information processing. In cognitive learning, the individual learns by listening, watching, touching, reading, or experiencing and then processing and remembering the information. Cognitive learning might seem to be passive learning, because there is no motor movement. However, the learner is quite active, in a cognitive way, in processing and remembering newly incoming information. Cognitive learning enables us to create and transmit a complex culture that includes symbols, values, beliefs and norms. Because cognitive activity is involved in many aspects of human behavior, it might seem that cognitive learning only takes place in human beings. However, many different species of animals are capable of observational learning. For example, a monkey in the zoo, sometimes imitates human visitors or other monkeys. Nevertheless, most information about cognitive learning is obtained from studies on human beings. Fourth domain: Memory The study of the capacity and fragility of human memory is one of the most developed aspects of cognitive psychology. Memory study focuses on how memories are acquired, stored, and retrieved. Memory domains have been functionally divided into memory for facts, for procedures or skills, and working and short-term memory capacity. The experimental approaches have identified dissociable memory types or capacity limited processing systems such as short-term or working memory. Computational approaches describe memory as propositional networks, or as holographic or composite representations and retrieval processes. Brain imaging and lesion studies identify separable brain regions active during storage or retrieval from distinct processing systems. Memory Systems In the outside world there are many memory systems, such as an appointment calendar, videotapes, compact discs and a piece of computer. Artificial memory systems has become a source of ideas about human memory system might function. Computers, for example, have served as a model for members of the psychology of human cognitive processes and memory. Three memory systems are visual and auditory sensory memory, working or short-term memory, and long-term memory. First, data from the eyes and ears of the temporarily stored in the memory of visual and auditory senses, and then they step into the short-term working memory. Working memory is a limited capacity processor includes separate storage devices for visual and auditory information. For learning to occur, new sensory information from the visual and auditory systems must be integrated in working memory to form a coherent idea. Then these ideas must be rehearsed in working memory in a way that integrates new ideas into existing memories in long-term memory. The integration of new data into existing schemas is called encoding. Long-term memory has a large storage capacity. However, coding into long-term memory is not sufficient. All processing takes place in working memory; the new knowledge and skills encoded into long-term memory must be saved into working memory when needed to perform a skill or task. This final stage is the cognitive basis for transfer of learning. Learning through listening and reading in the classes does help me in my study. I also experiencing during assignment research. Therefore, cognitive learning does implemented in my learning process and strategy. Fifth domain: Problem Solving The cognitive psychology of problem solving is the study of how humans pursue goal directed behavior. Solving a problem is conceived as finding operations to move from the initial state to a goal state in a problem space using either algorithmic or heuristic solutions. The problem representation is critical in finding solutions. Expertise in knowledge rich domains also depends on complex pattern recognition. Problem solving may engage perception, memory, attention, and executive function, and so many brain areas may be engaged in problem solving tasks, with an emphasis on pre-frontal executive functions. Problem solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue. Best strategy to solve problems depends on situation that is unique. In several cases, persons that better learn all what they can on the issue and then use knowledge fact to participate with solution. In other circumstances, creativity and insight are the best choice. The Steps in Problem-Solving In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps. Many researchers refer to this as the problem-solving cycle, which includes developing strategies and organizing knowledge. While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution. Instead, we often skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is reached. 1. Identifying the Problem: Identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. Somehow, as for me, sometime I would mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless. 2. Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to completely define the problem so that it can be solved. 3. Forming a Strategy: The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual’s unique preferences. 4. Organizing Information: Before coming up with a solution, we need to first organize the available information. What do we know about the problem? What do we not know? The more information that is available, the better prepared we will be to come up with an accurate solution. 5. Allocating Resources: Before one begins to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your available resources into coming up with a solution. 6. Monitoring Progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies. 7. Evaluating the Results: After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of treatment. For more understanding, I would try to understand and summaries the results. Conclusion Cognitive development is a complex process comprising three principal concepts affecting the development process: assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. All three are associated with the formation of schemata and their modification in order to attain a balanced sense of understanding of the external world. Meanwhile, most students quickly find that reading and studying are more demanding than they have previously experienced. Unlike behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors, cognitive psychology is concerned with internal mental and it uses scientific research methods to study mental processes. Each person has different cognitive learning styles, which allow us to gather and share information based on our processing habits. Unlike individual differences in a person’s abilities, cognition describes a person’s typical mode of thinking, perceiving, remembering or problem solving. Cognitive style is usually described as a personality dimension, which influences attitudes, values, and social interaction. How to cite Cognitive Psychology, Papers Cognitive Psychology Free Essays Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes such as how people think, perceive information, and learn (Willingham, 2007). This area of psychology mainly concentrates on the way people acquire, process, and store information. It has practical uses because it can enhance a person’s ability to learn by improving memory and advancing a person’s ability to make decisions. We will write a custom essay sample on Cognitive Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now There are four milestones in the development of cognitive psychology as a discipline. The research conducted by Dr. Alfred Adler was the first milestone in cognitive psychology. He is responsible for creating the theory of â€Å"Individual Psychology†. According to Alfred Adler’s â€Å"Individual Psychology†, every individual is born with the feeling of inferiority. From infancy, individuals first experience the feeling of helplessness and hopelessness. Individuals overcome the feeling of inferiority by striving for superiority towards the people they surround themselves with. Alfred Adler describes this feeling of inferiority as the driving forces behind all human emotions, thoughts, and behaviors. Some individuals experience the feeling of inferiority to an excessive level. These individuals have a high potential of developing inferiority complex. Inferiority complex is a condition where an individual feels hopeless and engages in unmotivated behavior. These individuals tend to become weaker and feel even more inferior as they age. (Adler, 1927). The second milestone in cognitive psychology is credited to Dr. Sigmund Freud. Freud introduced that the impulses governing sexuality were the factors that led to a normal or neurotic state of mind (Esterson, 1993). The third milestone was the work of Dr. Albert Ellis. His cognitive theory was called the â€Å"Rational Emotive Therapy†. â€Å"Rational Emotive Therapy† concentrates on resolving emotional and behavioral problems in order to lead people to live a happier life (Ellis, 1994). The fourth milestone in cognitive psychology is credited to the cognitive work of Dr. Aaron Beck. Dr. Aaron Beck’s cognitive theory places emphasis on helping individuals with difficulties. This is accomplished by first identifying dysfunctional thinking, behavior, and emotional responses. Once dysfunctional ties are identified, individuals learn new skills to change their thinking and behavior. In developing this theory, Dr. Aaron Beck concentrated on testing his theory on those individuals who experienced depression (Beck, 1979). Behavioral Observation is important in cognitive psychology. Behavior of an individual needs to be observed in order to draw a connection with how the individual’s mind works and responds. By observing human behavior, brain activity can be better predicted. In cognitive psychology, a good understanding of the brain can lead to uncovering a person’s method of processing information. Behavioral observation is the key to having an immense understanding of an individual’s cognitive psychology as it relate to how the individual thinks and responds. (Willingham, 2007). Beck, Aaron T. Cognitive Therapy of Depression. New York: Guilford, 1979. Print. Ellis, Albert. Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy: A Comprehensive Method of Treating Human Disturbances. New York: Carol Group, 1994. Print. Esterson, Allen. Seductive Mirage: An Exploration of the Work of Sigmund Freud. Chicago, IL: Open Court, 1993. Print. 25/Niedderer-MappingTheMeaningofKnowledge2007 Willingham, Daniel T. Cognition: The Thinking Animal. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2007. Print. How to cite Cognitive Psychology, Essay examples